From Husserl to van Manen. A review of different phenomenological approaches
Introduction
An examination of the philosophical basis of knowledge development is an essential component of nursing scholarship (Packard and Polifoni, 2002). Phenomenology has become a dominant means in the pursuit of knowledge development in nursing, and presents “credible displays of living knowledge for nursing” (Jones and Borbasi, 2004, p. 99). However, the term “Phenomenology”, although used frequently in nursing scholarship, is accompanied by confusion surrounding its nature. Firstly, it is not only a research method as that employed frequently by qualitative researchers; it is also a philosophy. Secondly, there are as many styles of phenomenology as there are phenomenologists (Spiegelberg, 1982). There are a number of schools of phenomenology, and even though they all have some commonalities, they also have distinct features. Furthermore, the many perspectives of phenomenology locates its various forms in the positivist (Husserl), post-positivist (Merleau–Ponty), interpretivist (Heidegger) and constructivist (Gadamer) paradigms (Racher and Robinson, 2003). Finally, a type of phenomenology as a research method, which has evolved in the US, known as new phenomenology (Crotty, 1996) is evident of a transformation that has occurred in phenomenology as a research method utilised by nurses. This paper adds clarification to the blurred boundaries of phenomenology as a philosophy and as a research method. This paper aims to unravel the origins of phenomenology as a philosophy to its adoption as a methodological approach and its subsequent transformation into what is known as new phenomenology. It is hoped that by taking the reader on this dual philosophical and methodological journey, a deeper understanding of an often perplexing issue will ensue.
Section snippets
The phenomenology of Husserl
Phenomenology arose as a philosophy in Germany before World War 1 and has since occupied a prominent position in modern philosophy. It challenged the dominant views on the origin and nature of truth of the time. The word phenomenon comes from the Greek phaenesthai, to flare up, to show itself, to appear (Moustakas, 1994). Thus the motto of phenomenology: “Zu den Sachen” which means both “to the things themselves” and “let's get down to what matters!” (van Manen, 1990, p. 184).
The term
Phenomenological reduction and phenomenological research
Polkinghorne (1983) suggests a two-step process for phenomenological reduction based on the work of Husserl. This is achieved by firstly free (imaginative) variation which leads the researcher to a description of the essential structures (essence) of the phenomena, without which it would not exist. Essence is what makes a thing what is (and without which it would not be what it is) (van Manen, 1990). Following this, the researcher then focuses on the concrete experience itself and describes how
The phenomenology of Heidegger
Martin Heidegger (1889–1976) was also born in Germany. His hermeneutic phenomenology like Husserl's phenomenology is concerned with human experience as it is lived.
Heidegger agrees with Husserl's declaration “to the things themselves”, but does not agree with Husserl's view of the importance of description rather than understanding (Racher, 2003). He differs from Husserl in his views of how the lived experience is explored, and he advocates the utilisation of hermeneutics as a research method
Merleu–Ponty
Merleau–Ponty built on the writings of Husserl and Heidegger. In his work, Phenomenology of Perception, the goal of phenomenology proposed is to rediscover first experience, which he terms as the “primacy of perception” (Racher and Robinson, 2003). Like Husserl, Merleau–Ponty advocates phenomenological reduction in order to reach an original awareness (Racher and Robinson, 2003). The goal of Merleau–Ponty's “phenomenology of origins” is to help us view our experience in a new light, not relying
Gadamer
Gadamer, with his work Truth and Method, followed on the work of Heidegger. The two central positions advanced by Gadamer are: (a) prejudgement (one's preconceptions or prejudices or horizon of meaning that is part of our linguistic experience and that make understanding possible) and (b) universality (the persons who express themselves and the persons who understand are connected by a common human consciousness, which makes understanding possible) (Ray, 1994).
Gadamer (1989) argues that the
Phenomenology as a methodological approach
As a philosophy, phenomenology is associated with the writings of Husserl, Heidegger, Gadamer, Arendt, Levinas, Sarte, Merleau–Ponty and Derrida (Moran, 2000). It has been called a pre-science by Carl Stumpf because of its position before making any claims of knowledge (Spiegelberg, 1982). Although none of the phenomenological philosophers developed research methods, their philosophies are often used to fortify contemporary qualitative research (Fleming et al., 2003). Moreover, Husserl is
Debates over new phenomenology
The real debates on the use of phenomenology in nursing however centre on the views of Crotty (1996) and Paley, 1997, Paley, 1998. Their arguments have placed a spotlight on phenomenology which has helped expose its complexities.
Crotty (1996) argues that nurse researchers have not developed their own phenomenology but “they have avidly embraced a form of phenomenology which developed around them and which appears to serve their purposes well” (p. 24). Crotty is of course referring to the hybrid
Current impact of van Manen's phenomenology
The influence of the Canadian phenomenologist Max van Manen also requires attention. As outlined earlier, his four existential provide guidance for researchers on phenomenological writing. These existentials also illustrate a fusion of the objectivist hermeneutic circle (part-whole) and the alethic hermeneutic circle (pre-understanding) as they acknowledge the experience of a phenomenon in a whole experience and also the researcher's role in the research process. van Manen's writings on a human
Conclusion
Caelli (2000) argues that although the traditional European approach to phenomenology has value to the “critical, objective analyses of phenomena as they present in nursing” (p. 374), American approaches also have merit as they are in keeping with the philosophical movement toward a position located firmly in the postmodern world where people live and where research is conducted. Moreover, nursing has a concern to understand the human condition rather than the phenomena as such. The view of
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